t’s 2004, and a frustrated customer walks into an independent record store. Last week, she heard a song she loved on the radio, but didn’t catch who it was by – and it has been stuck in her head ever since. The store owner asks her to sing what she remembers, recognizes the song, finds the CD, and plays it back to her. She is impressed by the personalized service, buys the CD and a couple of others that the shop owner recommends, and leaves the store likely to return in the future. Fast-forward 15 years, and digital technologies have stepped up to replace our helpful store owner. Music mobile app Shazam, which was acquired in 2018 by Apple, recognizes songs, provides the user with the details, and recommends similar songs – which can then be purchased or streamed on Apple Music. In many ways, this is the same personalized service offered by the independent store, but with one crucial difference: this is personalized service at scale. 2